Tolpava Koothu, the unique shadow puppet theatre form of Kerala, South India, is preserved as a family tradition by the Pulavars.
It is an ancient peculiar ritualistic art form dedicated to Bhagavati, worshiped by the people of Kerala as the Mother Goddess.
As a ritualistic art form, Tolpava Koothu is performed during the months of January to May at the especially constructed theatre called Koothu Madam in front of the Bhagavati temple.

The performance starts at about 10 p.m. and goes on till day-break. It will be enjoyed by the general public as a popular entertainment while it will be received as a religious offering by the devotees.

The puppet plays are based on selected verses from the famous Tamil Epic '’Kamba Ramayana'. The language used is a dialect of Tamil with an admixture of Sanskrit and Malayalam words.

The Puppets are made of deer skin and are held by a thin stick in one hand while the limbs are manipulated by a thinner stick held in another hand of the puppeteer.

About 160 puppets are used for the complete version of the "Kamba Ramayana", representing 71 characters in four main categories (sitting, standing, walking, fighting) besides puppets to depict nature, battle scenes and ceremonial parades.

The screen is illuminated by 21 lighted lamps, made out of coconut shelves, filled with coconut oil, provided with cotton wicks and placed equidistant from eachother on the Vilakku-madam (wooden beam) behind the curtain.
Ezhupara, a cylindrical drum made out of jack-fruit wood and covered with calf-skin on both ends andIlathalam (cymbals) are the main accompaniments.Shankha (conch), Chenda and Maddalam(drums), Chengila (gong) and Kurum-kuzhal (a short pipe) are further instruments to be used on special occasions.
Depending on the temple tradition, the performance lasts 7, 14, 21, 41 or 71 days. Tolpava Koothu is still performed in more than 100 temples all overPalghat, Trichur and Mallapuram district. 

tholpava koothu

INTRODUCTION

Shadow puppets have an interesting genesis. As one of the oldest art forms of India, they are derived from the visual art performances like the Chitra Katha(scroll paintings) often the south India, the Jadano Pat (rolled painting) of Bengal, the Chitrakathi (single paintings) of Maharashtra, Yampat (scroll paintings) of Bihar and the Phad (panel painting) of Rajasthan. These puppets, made with leather, are treasured in much folklore and mentioned in the Puranasand the Jatakas. It would appear that the shadow puppets, as a form of theatre, evolved from the visual dramatisation given to cut-out figures.

Ravana, Ravanachhaya

Different styles of leather shadow puppets are found in India in different regions. Some are translucent to opaque, some small to medium-sized, and some black-and-white or coloured. Many of the puppets represent gods, goddesses and Apsaras (celestial beings), which are held in high esteem and stored separately from the demon-puppets.

Historically, the tradition of Chhaya Natak (shadow theatre) seemed to have existed in Gujarat a thousand years ago and migrated to Maharashtra. It was given high patronage by the local potentates there and allowed settlements in different regions. The clan, which was a wandering tribe, spread their art as they migrated to the further south, performing the shadow plays of Maharashtra. Another clan of the original tribe migrated to Karnataka, taking their art form with them. The art flourished throughout the later centuries and was rejuvenated under the royal patronage of various rulers in these regions.

The staples of the shadow puppet theatre are epics, used as the medium of audio-visual education blended with entertainment over the centuries. The themes of Mahabharata and Ramayana, imbued with religious thought as well as social ethics, are narrated through select episodes in the course of a single night. The entire epic comes for a marathon narrative in its sequence of events over several successive nights. The philosophy conveyed is: the good overpowering the evil and the gods never mixing with the evil demons.

The shadow shows invariably begin with an invocation to the Ganesha, the elephant-headed son of Shiva, who is treated as the patron God of all puppets. Often Saraswati, the goddess of learning finds a place in the opening prayer, to the accompaniment of Bramha, the creator of the universe, who conducts the dance-music. The show remains mostly a family affair confined to a particular sect, although, others can join, as in recent times. The female members are generally not inducted as puppeteers though children are encouraged to learn in many clans. The village-temple committees and the heads of the village are usually the patrons of the art. The occasions of holding the theatres are the village fairs and festivals. The casting of the shadow on the screen is by the oil lamp, slowly getting replaced by the electric light. The memorised dialogues are recited or sung by the leader (and repeated by the chorus) in a stylised manner. The musicians are separate from the puppeteers and use entirely the regional instruments. The music is normally based on the traditional ragas or inspired by the folk tunes. The stories seldom depart from the epic tradition and do not assimilate contemporary themes.

Interestingly, a single shadow puppet doubles up for other roles such as Laxmana in the Ramayana coming back as Arjuna of the Mahabharata. Again, the same epic character may be represented through several puppets according to the story or the situation, such as the flying Hanumana, gradually getting smaller, approaching the other coast of the sea, or the royal Rama being different from the Rama in exile. The back-stage arrangement of the puppets is always sequential and new puppets are inducted along with a ritual. There are different animal characters as well, apart from the properties like trees, chariots, bows and arrows, and thrones. Each regional style has its own stock characters to create comic situations.

The sculptures and friezes of the regional temples in their original form usually inspire the figures of the puppets. New puppets, of course, derive their design from the older puppets. The base material for making these puppets is the animal hide: mainly the goat or the deer, depending on the regional availability. The shadow screen is erected in a direction prescribed in the rituals. In earlier days, the colouring was done with vegetable pigments made by the puppeteers themselves, getting replaced by the mineral colours commercially available at present. The puppets, stored in bamboo boxes or tin boxes, have a long life.

The shadow puppets are very widely prevalent in the south India in all the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and the coastal areas. Besides, these are found in the states of Maharashtra and Orissa.

ANDHRA PRADESH

The shadow plays are known as Tholu Bommalatta (Tholu meaning leather). There are puppeteers whose genealogy go back to ten to eleven generations, and refer not merely to their spread in Andhra under the Satvahana and Chalukya dynasties, but also to the islands of Java, under the control of Pallava and Kakatia kings in the sixth century. The leather puppetry of South India seems to have gone to Indonesia, Burma, Siam, Malaya, Cambodia, Indonesia, Japan, China and other South Asian countries: to earn name and fame for the Indian art.

Tholu Bommalatta

The shadow puppet is conducted in open air as a free show. Space is left from the ground to knee height and at that height, one dhoti (White cloth) is tied between two poles and the second dhoti joined above the first, with the help of date-palm thorns. A pole is also fixed in the middle of the screen for support. Other three sides are made from gunny bags and have an exit made in the back wall of the room. Behind the screen, two wooden planks are placed on the ground: one upon the other for sound effect. When characters talk harshly with each other or one character kicks another or two characters fight with each other, puppeteers stamp with their feet on the wooden plank. Generally, six members operate in a group, including two women. Puppeteers change their voices according to characters. The duration of the shows is usually six to eight hours.

Behind the stage, two puppeteers manipulate the puppets. One manipulates the head and the other the hands. Sometimes, Rama and Lakshmana have moustaches like Mughal characters or they may wear costumes as inYakshagana (folk play). It is not necessary that Rama be in blue colour. Hanumana is black or red, Ravana red and the other demons are black. They use light amber, yellow, orange and brown shades for women. Characteristically, the puppets come as single figures and appear in profile. Only Ravana has the front face to show his ten heads. Main characters have joints on head, neck, shoulders, elbow and wrists. A character like Arjuna, can sit and has joints on knees. There are two comic characters: Killekyatha and Bangaraku. The dancer puppet has extra joints at wrists and the head, which is separately attached to a stick and connected with the main body by a loose string. The feet are attached to the skirt. A maximum of three people can manipulate at a time. They process the leather for two days to make it translucent, then draw and cut the figure and lastly make ornamentation by making holes on the figure and colouring. Puppets in Nellore district are the biggest in the world, being more than 2 metres high.

The stage is 21 x 6 x 10 feet. The screen is 8 x 6 feet to 12 x 8 feet and leans 1.5 feet forward. They perform nine days consecutively during Mahashivaratri: from twilight to dawn. Manipulators perform dance-steps in Kuchipudi style, wearing the bells. There are three musicians in a group. They play Mridangam, Jalor, Mukhaveena, harmonium and cymbal. Musicians sit behind the curtain. The light is kept 2 feet from the screen and high enough so that the light can directly come to the screen. They have a maximum of fifteen puppets, while thirty puppets make a set.

KARNATAKA

Leather puppet of Karnataka is called Togalu Gombeatta (Togalu meaning leather, Gombe meaning doll and Atta meaning dance). They received royal patronage from Rashtrakutas, Pallavas, Kadambas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Kothapur kingdoms. There are more than forty types of composed scenes where as many as ten puppets are in a scene: with women churning butter, farmers, washer men, hair-cutters, juggling puppets, boxing puppets, etc. and with costumes dating back to the Mughal era.

Hanuman, Togalu Gombeyatta The character of Rama wears an upper garment and a striped lower piece, with a crown on head. The puppets belong to different categories, such as, divinities and their carrier animals; demons and giants; human figures, such as, princes, princesses, nobles, functionary priests, attendants, etc.; rank-holders among the soldier-apes; comic figures; other animals; trees and plants; and the sun and moon. Puppets are of different sizes according to the ranks and importance.Killekyata (a jet-black puppet) andBangarakka are mischievous stock characters important for the show.Twodhotis are stretched tightly across the four bamboo poles, with the puppets pinned on the screen with palm-thorns or stuck along the lower supporting bamboo of the screen-frame.

The show continues for nine days at a stretch. A stage is constructed in the middle of the village, 9 x 6 x 5 feet high. Clay, bronze and iron lamp are used with castor oil.

There is a minimum of six to eight people in a group. All puppeteers are literate and have farming as their occupation. People believe that a show brings long life to their cattle and protects them from draught and other natural calamities. Musicians are four to five in a group, who sit behind the screen and useMadalam, Harmonium, Tal, cymbal and Mukhabeena as instruments. They perform from epics and legends. Each group has one hundred to five hundred puppets and some groups are more than five hundred years old. They need a minimum of eighty puppets and 200 to 250 puppets to make a set. The maximum size of the puppet is 4 x 3 feet and the minimum is 6 x 3 inches. Puppets have joints on neck, shoulders, elbows, waists and hips, and the style is taken from the temples of Chalukya, Vijaynagar and Haysala. Red, blue, green and black colours are used for the puppets. Manipulation is done while sitting. One man can manipulate 2 to 3 puppets at a time, and 4 to 5 persons can manipulate simultaneously. These puppets, which have joint on limbs, are manipulated by thin bamboo-rods. Most of the puppets have two eyes in profile and beautifully perforated for putting on the ornaments of puppets. The scenes are of king's court, queen's chamber, hunting scene of king, deer stuck with an arrow, etc. Occasionally social scenes are also used within the composite scene.

KERALA

Shadow puppet of Kerala is called Thol Pava Koothu (Thol meaning leather). One group has generally 8 members. The group leader, usually very knowledgeable, is called Pullavar or Pandit (scholar). Puppeteers live only in Kochi, Palghat and Trichur districts. The performance is connected with temple rituals and goes for 7 to 21 days at a stretch. Villagers believe that Devi Kali watches the performance, especially the scene of Ravana Badh, because she was busy killing the demon Darika when it actually happened. Puppeteers, originally from Tamil Nadu, recite verses and sing in Tamil, and give explanation in Malayam in performance. They only follow Ramayana, written by poet Kamba 500 years ago. Pullavar sings the story and explains it through questions and answers along with arguments and counter-arguments.

Thol Pava Koothu

The group performs on a permanent stage called Koothu Medon or Koothu Mandapam. The stage is about 45 feet long, 15 feet deep and 10 feet high. Thorns attach puppets, when still on the screen. Sometimes they erect a temporary stage in front of the Kali temple. Such a stage is 42 x 12 x 8 feet. A black curtain is stitched along with a white curtain; signifying upper portion as the sky and lower portion as the earth. The temple festival begins by hoisting a flag on the temple and afterwards they fix the screen. At the end of the festival, they remove the screen, to the accompaniment of fireworks. There is a 42-feet bamboo pole, kept one foot behind the screen and 21 lamps are kept at a distance of 2 feet from each other, using coconut shells and oil for the lamps. Four musicians sit right behind the screen. They use Kali(drum), Para (small drum), cymbal, flute. Every play has a stock character Kindakkaranm (man with an umbrella) and others. A play starts with invocation of Ganesh, and prayer to Vishnu and Saraswati. The show begins from Aranyakandya for the 14-day performance and from Balkanda for the 21-day performance. Performance ends with the incarnation of Rama and Sita. Women do not take part.

After the killing of Ravana by Rama, the play is halt for one or two days, when stage-floor and screen are washed from desecration by the bloodshed. The maximum size of a puppet is 30 x 25 inches and the minimum is 6 x 5 inches. The puppets have joints on neck, shoulders, elbows and wrists. Generally, each puppet has a joint in one hand, barring the fighting puppets of Rama and Ravana who have joints on both hands. The leather thread joins the two portions. The style is taken from the temple-relief of north Kerala. Puppeteers manipulate by standing. In the fighting scene, the second puppeteer manipulates the weapons like arrows and bows. Hanumana and men have two eyes in profile, while both Ravana and Brahma have front faces. Rama is deep blue and Sita is golden brown. Puppets wear ornaments and dress like Kathakali dancers.

TAMIL NADU

Shadow puppet of Tamil Nadu is called Tholu Bommalattam (Tholu meaning leather). It is the same as in Andhra and coloured. There are very few puppeteers who perform regularly.

Thol Pava Koothu

MAHARASHTRA

The shadow puppet of Maharashtra is called Chamdyacha Bahuliya(Chamdyachameaning leather) and is mostly seen in the famous village of Pinguli on the border of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka. Every group has one leader, one helper and two musicians. Only the 'Thakore' community practises this art. Their profession is fishing and harvesting.

They maintain a permanent stage in the village, but stages can be erected in temples and religious places. The screen is 4 x 5x 3 feet; one iron lamp hangs behind the screen. The group leader and the musicians speak the dialogue. They only perform Valmiki Ramayana, starting from Panchavati episode to Ravaan Badha. Dholak and Wata (brass instrument) are used as instruments and musicians sit both sides of the screen.

A minimum of 65 puppets is needed. Generally, they split a stick at the centre to hold the puppet and there is no other joint. Puppeteers hold the puppet in left hand and manipulate by right hand while seated. The maximum size of a puppet is 35 x 27 cms. and the minimum is 11 x 8.5 cms. During the performance, the dancer puppet performs first in the court of Indra (king of heaven) accompanying with Pakhwaj player and Jodiwala. Then comes Haridas as narrator, before the play starts. The coloured shadow puppets made of leather are paper-thin and have no perforation. They use Paithan style of decoration, with men having moustaches and beards with costumes like the Mughals.

ORISSA

The Shadow puppet of Orissa is called Ravana Chhaya (Chhaya meaning shadow). They derive the name from the evil king Ravana as they believe that Rama, with his spiritual aura, casts no shadow. Only one troupe is found at Dhenkanal district. The group has eight persons including four musicians. The show is presented in Oriya language.

Ravana Chhaya

The stage is erected in a field or street. The dimensions are 8 x 5 feet. The screen is attached with straw mats that conceal the bottom to hide the manipulator. The size of the screen is 8 x 4 feet. Earthen lamps are kept on the wooden stand 3 feet from the screen. The main singer or interpreter is calledGayak and they follow Bichitra Ramayana written in Oriya in early eighteenth century. Musical instruments are Khanjari (a type of tamborine), Ramtali(wooden castanets) and Kubuji (brass cymbal). Musicians sit on the right side of the stage. The interpreter speaks the improvised dialogue. The group has 300 to 350 puppets. The barber puppet, called Bhandari, appears first with his grandson. Puppets are made from deerskin, and cast black and white shadow. Puppets are 4 inches to 2 feet high, 1.5 feet in breadth and approximately 3mm thick. Puppets have no joints and one spilt bamboo-stick runs down the centre of the puppet, held by the puppeteer. Ravana is much larger than other puppets.

Puppeteers manipulate by sitting and one can manipulate two puppets at a time. Sometimes they use a composite set like Sita sitting in Ashok Vatika(Forest) or in chariot.

CONCLUSION

Shadow puppeteers of India still follow traditions and observe many customs connected with ritualistic religion. It is interesting to observe that shadow puppeteers in general, and those from Kerala in particular, offer comments on diverse topics of religion and philosophy, using a fairly complex corpus of literature.

sattras

Sattras are the Vaishnava monasteries in Assam. The saint poet Shankar Deva of the 15th century AD started this institution to bring harmony to the region of Assam through religion, creating forms of dance-dramas, music, painting and collective prayer. The dance forms which have come to stay are called Sattriya dances, sharing all the characteristics of a classical dance form.
As a living tradition these dances are performed in the namghar, the prayer hall of the sattra by the celibate monks. Dressed in white costumes and turbans, head gears, they include kho lplaying, performing dance, creating soundscapes, floor patterns and choreographic designs. The numbers like "Sutradhari," "Chali," "Jhumura" partake of nritta, pure dance, nritya, expressional dance and dance-drama elements. The music is provided by khol-drum, patital, boratal-cymbals along with songs. The repertoire of Sattriya is vast. Now young female dancers also study these dances and they have come out of the sattra. They are presented on the metropolitan stages, with typical music of Assam, costumes and literary compositions viz borgeet. Both solo and group numbers enrich its presentation.

odissi

Odissi traces its origins to the ritual dances performed in the temples of ancient northern India. Today the name Odissi refers to the dance style of the state of Orissa in eastern India. Like other classical arts of India, this ancient dance style had suffered a decline as temples and artists lost the patronage of feudal rulers and princely states, and by the 1930s and 40s, there were very few surviving practitioners of the art.

The current form of Odissi is the product of a 20th century revival. Dedicated scholars and dance enthusiasts carefully researched manuscripts and studied the sculpture, painting and poetry of the region. They also met and observed the performances of the few existing performers, in order to revive and restructure Odissi as a unique classical dance style adapted to the requirements of formal stage presentation. Over the years Odissi has become one of the most popular classical dance styles.

Like other Indian classical dance forms, Odissi has two major facets: Nritta or non-representational dance, in which ornamental patterns are created using body movements in space and time; and Abhinaya, or stylized mime in which symbolic hand gestures and facial expressions are used to interpret a story or theme.

The divine love tales of Radha and the cowherd God Krishna are favourite themes for interpretation, and a typical recital of Odissi will contain at least one or two ashtapadis (poem of eight couplets) from Jayadeva's Gita Govindam, which describes in exquisite Sanskrit poetry the complex relationship between Radha and her Lord.

The technique of Odissi includes repeated use of the tribhangi, or thrice deflected posture, in which the body is bent in three places, approximating the shape of a helix. This posture and the characteristic shifting of the torso from side to side, make Odissi a difficult style to execute. When mastered, it is the epitome of fluid grace and has a distinctively lyrical quality that is very appealing.

mohiniattam

The dance form of Mohiniattam was nurtured in the region of Kerala in southwestern India. The name Mohiniattam literally means 'Dance of the Enchantress,' and it does have a mesmerizing quality. The white and gold costume, arresting hairstyle and the highly graceful movements in medium tempo, contribute to this aesthetic effect.

Mohiniattam is characterized by swaying movements of the upper body with legs placed in a stance similar to the plie position. The eyes play an important role in accenting the direction of the movement.

Mention of Mohiniattam is found in some eighteenth century texts, but the practical aspect of the style was revived in the reign of Maharaja Swati Tirunal, a 19th century ruler who was a great patron of the arts. Under Swati Tirunal, Mohiniattam crystallized as a solo dance tradition with musical compositions set to the Carnatic style of music and a distinct repertoire. Later, in the twentieth century, the great poet Vallathol established the Kerala Kalamandalam to promote the arts of Mohiniattam and Kathakali. Here, further research was done and Mohiniattam was codified and revived.

Over the past few decades, the repertoire of Mohiniattam has been developed and expanded by dedicated performers who have ensured that this beautiful dance style retains a distinct identity among the classical dance styles of India. Apart from mythology, Mohiniattam contains a range of themes from nature.

Modern Dance

Modern Dance in India has a relatively short history. Since the perception of 'modern' or 'contemporary' can vary from dancer to dancer, this dance form cannot be defined as easily as the classical dance styles of India. It is also not codified in a detailed manner, as are the classical styles.

Uday Shankar, who was born in the early years of the 20th century, is widely accepted as the Father of Modern Dance in India. This great dancer had a very wide vision, and he appreciated the wonderful variety and scope of expression afforded by the different classical and folk dances extant in the country.

His search for a personal expression led him to incorporate different dance styles, such as Bharata Natyam and Kathakali into his choreographic productions. He established an idyllic institution in the hills of Kumaon, where he invited teachers from different genres to train his troupe in order to groom their bodies to a state where they could produce a varied, rich and contemporary dance vocabulary. Uday Shankar was an idealist as well as a wonderful showman. He was a catalyst in the renaissance of interest in Indian arts during the 1930s and '40s, and he introduced audiences in the West to Indian dance and music through the performances of his troupe.

Some of Uday Shankar's famous works include the innovative ballet, 'Labour and Machinery' and a path breaking film, 'Kalpana,' on the theme of dance.

The institute established by Uday Shankar is now defunct, but his legacy survives in the work of his children and his many disciples, who have their own troupes and students. Today, in addition to the line established by Uday Shankar, there are other practitioners of Modern Dance in India who belong to other schools.

More recently, Dr Manjushree Chaki-Sarkar created a dance idiom which she called Nava Nrityam. With her daughter Ranjabati Sarkar and their troupe based in Calcutta she did a great deal of research and codification of the dance style and presented a large number of choreographic productions. The untimely death of Ranjabati and of her mother Manjushree Chaki-Sarkar was a tragic loss for the world of contemporary dance.

With growing interaction between dance practitioners all over the country and the world, and awareness of important contemporary issues, many classical dancers have also stepped into the realm of contemporary dance through exploration of one or many dance styles. Often martial arts such as Kalaraipayattu of Kerala and Chhau of eastern India are incorporated into dance choreography, lending greater vigour and variety to the artistic expression.

Manipuri

Manipuri is one of the most beautiful dance styles of India. Nurtured in the mountainous region of the northeast, it takes its name from the name of the area, Manipur, which is now a state. Manipur literally means a jewel of a land, and the state is set like a gem in the verdant hills. The legend goes that the gods drained a lake in the beautiful countryside in order to find a place to dance. No wonder then, that dance is an inherent part of the rituals of daily life, such as weddings and homage to ancestors.

The Lai Haroba, a ritualistic dance depicting the Creation, is considered the precursor of Manipuri as seen today. The Lai Haroba is still an important living tradition, while Manipuri has expanded and gained popularity as a performing art in group and solo presentations.

Among the important constituents of the Manipuri repertoire are the Sankirtana and the Raas Leela, based on the devotional theme of Krishna and Radha. The Raas Leela depicts the cosmic dance of Krishna and the cowherd maidens. The beautiful embroidered skirts of the dancers, long and flared from the waist, and the transluscent veils, along with Krishna's costume with the tall peacock feather crown, add to the radiant appearance of this dance, as the performers sway and twirl to an ascending tempo.

Another vibrant feature of Manipuri is the Pung Cholam or Drum dance, in which dancers play on the drum known as Pung while dancing with thrilling leaps and turns to a fast rhythm.

Kuchipudi

Sculptural evidence from all parts of India and the surrounding region points to a rich tradition of dance and music that flourished over a thousand years ago. All over ancient India, it would seem, dance and music were seen not merely as ways to celebrate but also as offerings of worship and thanksgiving to the Divine. Over the course of time, the dance forms practiced in the different parts of the country were codified and developed distinct identities according to the geographic, socio-economic, and political conditions of each region.

The dance form Kuchipudi developed in what is now known as the state of Andhra Pradesh in southern India. Kuchipudi derives its name from the village Kuchelapuram, where it was nurtured by great scholars and artists who built up the repertoire and refined the dance technique.

The technique of Kuchipudi makes use of fast rhythmic footwork and sculpturesque body movements. Stylized mime, using hand gestures and subtle facial expression, is combined with more realistic acting, occasionally including dialogues spoken by the dancers. In this blend of performance techniques, Kuchipudi is unique among the Indian classical dance styles. Kuchipudi today is performed either as a solo or a group presentation, but historically it was performed as a dance drama, with several dancers taking different roles. The themes are mostly derived form the scriptures and mythology, and the portrayal of certain characters is a central motif of this dance form. One example is Satyabhama, the colourful second consort of Lord Krishna. Another unique feature of Kuchipudi is the Tarangam, in which the performer dances on the edges of a brass plate, executing complicated rhythmic patterns with dexterity, while sometimes also balancing a pot of water on the head.

Kuchipudi is accompanied by Carnatic music. A typical orchestra for a Kuchipudi recital includes the mridangam, flute and violin. A vocalist sings the lyrics, and the nattuvanar conducts the orchestra and recites the rhythmic patterns.

Koodiyattam

Koodiyattam, the Sanskrit theatre tradition of Kerala, India has been declared as among the 'Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity' by UNESCO.

It is for the first time that UNESCO has selected art forms from across the world to bestow recognition as part of its effort to safeguard expressions of oral heritage and traditional culture.

Koodiyattam was selected from among 32 entries from all over the world. Dating back to 2,000 years, `Koodiyattam' is a unique theatre tradition which survived in Kerala from an ancient past. It deals with the plays of eminent Sanskrit dramatists such as Bhasa, Harsha, Kalidasa, Maendravikrama and Saktibhadra. While following the performative principles of the larger Indian aesthetic tradition, `Koodiyattam' has its own distinctive characteristics that are firmly rooted in the culture of Kerala.

Kathak

This dance form traces its origins to the the nomadic bards of ancient northern India, known as Kathaks, or story tellers. These bards, performing in village squares and temple courtyards, mostly specialized in recounting mythological and moral tales from the scriptures, and embellished their recitals with hand gestures and facial expressions. It was quintessential theatre, using instrumental and vocal music along with stylized gestures, to enliven the stories. With the advent of Mughal culture, Kathak became a sophisticated chamber art. Patronized by art loving rulers, the practitioners of Kathak worked at refining its dramatic and rhythmic aspects, delighting elite audiences with their mastery over rhythm and the stylized mime.

The technique of Kathak today is characterized by fast rhythmic footwork set to complex time cycles. The footwork is matched by the accompanying percussion instruments such as tabla and pakhawaj, and the dancer and percussionists often indulge in a virtuoso display of rhythmic wizardry.The dance movements include numerous pirouettes executed at lightning speed and ending in statuesque poses. The interpretative portion, based on tales of Radha and Krishna and other mythological lore, contains subtle gestures and facial expressions. Lucknow, Banaras and Jaipur are recognized as the three schools, or gharanas, where this art was nurtured and where the interpretative and rhythmic aspects were refined to a high standard.

chhau

The Chhau dance is indigenous to the eastern part of India. It originated as a martial art and contains vigourous movements and leaps. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many of the princely rulers of the Orissa region took a keen interest in the development of this art. They maintained troupes that performed on special occasions and festivals.

Some Chhau dances use large stylized masks. The depiction of birds and animals is a distinctive feature. There are also heroic dances with sword, bow or shield, with which dancers demonstrate their dexterity. In keeping with the martial origins of Chhau, some of the themes include the depiction of mythological heroes, such as Parashurama, Mahadev, Indrajit and others, from the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics. Over the course of time, female characters and more diverse themes were added.

There are three recognized schools or styles of Chhau. These are the Seraikella, Purulia and Mayurbhanj varieties. Mayurbhanj Chhau dancers do not wear masks. In recent times, Mayurbhanj Chhau has become popular as a medium of choreography, with its wide range of postures and movements that adapt well to modern as well as traditional treatment.

KATHAKALI

Kathakali is one of the oldest theatre forms in the world. It originated in the area of southwestern India now known as the state of Kerala. Kathakali is a group presentation, in which dancers take various roles in performances traditionally based on themes from Hindu mythology, especially the two epics, the Ramayana and theMahabharata.
One of the most interesting aspects of Kathakali is its elaborate make-up code. Characters are categorized according to their nature. This determines the colours used in the make-up. The faces of noble male characters, such as virtuous kings, the divine hero Rama, etc., are predominantly green. Characters of high birth who have an evil streak, such as the demon king Ravana, are allotted a similar green make-up, slashed with red marks on the cheeks. Extremely angry or excessively evil characters wear predominantly red make-up and a flowing red beard. Forest dwellers such as hunters are represented with a predominantly black make-up base. Women and ascetics have lustrous, yellowish faces.
The technique of Kathakali includes a highly developed language of gesture, through which the artist can convey whole sentences and stories. The body movements and footwork are very rigourous. To attain the high degree of flexibility and muscle control required for this art, a Kathakali dancer undergoes a strenuous course of training, and special periods of body massage.
The dancers wear large head dresses, and the contours of the face are extended with moulded lime. The extraordinary costumes and make-up serve to raise the participants above the level of mere mortals, so that they may transport the audience to a world of wonders.
The orchestra of a Kathakali performance includes two drums known as the chenda and the maddalam, along with cymbals and another percussion instrument, the ela taalam. Normally, two singers provide the vocal accompaniment. The style of singing particular to Kathakali is called Sopaanam. The orchestra of a Kathakali troupe is unique and provides not only the background to the dancing, but also serves as a highly expressive special effects team. In the traditional village ambiance, the percussionists also provide publicity for the event by playing outside the venue for some hours before the start of the show.
A traditional Kathakali performance begins in the evening and continues throughout the night, culminating at the auspicious hour of dawn, when Good finally conquers Evil. Today, however, it has been modified for the proscenium stage, and urban audiences can participate in this ritualistic theatre experience in the comfort of a plush auditorium, within the span of a couple of hours.
x

Slokas specific to Classical dance

Slokas or verses which are full of wisdom are central and common to the traditional way of life; that is, life as per the Vedas. Thus it is only natural that we find many verses that pertain to the art of dance. Below I have presented only two, but these are very widely known throughout India and although appropriate to dance, they can fit in happily to all aspects of life.

In Bharata Natyam, as in many other dance forms there is an oft-repeated sloka:

Guru Brahma
Guru Vishnu
Guru Devo Maheswaraha
Guru Sakshaad Parambrahma
Tasmay Shri Guruveh Namaha
* Aangikam Bhuvanam Yasya
Vachikam Sarva Vangmayam
Aharyam Chandra-Taradi Tvam Namaha
Sattvikam Shivam

The sloka can roughly be translated to mean

Lord Brahma, Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva, (My) Guru
I bow to you, the ultimate Lord/Guru:
*
You, whose limbs are the Universe,
You, the Originator of all speech,
You, whose adornments are the moon and stars,
You are The Truth.

The Natya Krama 
The following sloka is:

Khantaanyat Lambayat Geetam
Hastana Artha Pradakshayat
Chakshubhyam Darshayat Bhavom
Padabhyam Tala Acherait
*
Yato Hasta Stato Drushti
Yato Drushti Stato Manaha
Yato Manaha Stato Bhavom
Yato Bhavom Stato Rasaha

This means: 

Keep the song in your throat
Let your hands bring out the meaning
Your glance should be full of expression
While your feet maintain the rhythm
*
Where the hand goes, there the eyes should follow
Where the eyes are, the mind should follow
Where the mind is, there the expression should be brought out
Where the expression is, there the rasa or flavour will be experienced (by the audience). 

Elements of Indian Dance

Abhinaya:

Abhinaya is common to all Classical Indian dances. Abhinaya is the expressional aspect of dance, or nritya . In contrast to this, Nritta is composed of only pure dance and will feature striking and aesthetic poses, but will have no expressional meaning and symbolism.
Abhinaya has been analysed in the Natya Shastra and has been categorised into four types:
· Angika - or physical, using movements of every part of the body to convey meaning, with hastamudras (hand gestures), mandis (postures) and even the walk of the dancer.
· Vachikabhinaya - or vocal/verbal, used formally today by members of the orchestra or supporting, non-dancing cast.
· Aharyabhinaya - or external, expression, mood and background as conveyed by costume, make-up, accessories and sets.
· Satvikabhinaya - or psychological, shown by the eyes in particular and as a whole by the entire being of the performer, who feels the mood, the character and the emotion as emanating from the self, not as an act or practical presentation. 

The Navrasas:

In addition, the navarasas, or nine emotions, give all dance a completeness that allows the dancer and the rasikas (audience) to experience the full beauty and meaning of the lyrics and the movements they are portrayed by.
These emotions are expressed in the eyes, the face, subtle muscle shifts and the body as a whole. They are:

hasya (happiness),
krodha (anger),
bhibasta (disgust),
bhayanaka (fear),
shoka (sorrow),
veera (courage),
karuna (compassion),
adbhuta (wonder) and
shanta (serenity).

The origins of Indian Dance: The Natya Shastra

The Nayta Shastra is the principal work of dramatic theory in the Sanskrit drama of classical India. It was written by the sage Bharata Muni. It is a set of precepts on the writing and performance of dance, music and theatre. While the Natyasastra primarily deals with stagecraft, it has come to influence music, dance, and literature as well. Thus, an argument can be made that the Natyasastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India.

The Natya Shastra was created in the beginning of Treta Yug by Brahma on the request of Indra and other devas as an object of diversion (Kridaniyaka). As the lower castes (Shudras) were not entitled to listen to the four Vedas (Sama, Yajur, Rig and Atharav), Brahma created the Natya Shastra as the fifth Veda which was open to all, irrespective of caste and creed.

Prior to the creation of the Natya Veda, Brahma entered a yogic trance in which he recalled the four Vedas. He drew the recitative (Paathya) from the Rig, songs (Geeta) from the Sama, histronic representation (Abhinaya) from the Yajur and sentiments (Rasa) from the Atharv.

These aspects are the four main constituents of the Natya Veda.

When the Natya Veda was ready, the Gods expressed their inability to practise it, and Brahma passed it to Bharata Muni and his one hundred sons who were asked to practise it.

The dance was first seen at the Flag Festival of Indra to celebrate the victory of the Devas against the Daahavas.

Shiva learnt the Tandava (masculine) form of the dance, whereas Parvati, his consort learnt the Lasya (feminine) form.

The Natya Shastra